Communication Essay Example

Communication Paper It also creates feelings against others such as friendships, relationships, enemies etc, which are all produced by communication and thou it we wouldnt be able to express any of this emotion and thoughts. It helps in the workplace and in the general public, as you are then able to communicate in different ways because there are a lot of different communications that you will see and come across all the time. So knowing the purpose of communication helps you to learn and use communication in your day to day life. 1. Explain the reasons for knowing the audience to whom communications are presented Knowing the audience to whom you present verbal communication to is important because you will have to analyses first how you are going to monomaniac with them and whether they will understand what you have to say. If you had a board meeting and you had to present your idea of a new product in front of the head department of your place of work you would have to work out how to present it to them, because youve got to keep them interested. Because you are presenting a new idea you would probably make a Powering presentation on the computer with all the information you need on it and talk alongside it so everybody understands. However because they are of higher authority, you would use more complex/technical words to how you know what you are on about and youd also make sure layout, spelling, punctuation and grammar etc was correct. Also you would give everybody a hand out which goes into more detail and always keep eye contact. Everything would have to be formal. We will write a custom essay sample on Communication specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Communication specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Communication specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer On the other hand if you were doing a talk in a school on behalf of your company you would be less formal and communicate more through body language to keep the children interested. So knowing your audience is important. 1. 3 Explain the purpose of knowing the intended outcomes of communication The purpose of knowing the intended outcomes of communication is so you an use communication effectively in day to day life and be able to send and receive clear messages without and confusion or misunderstanding. It will help you hold a conversation with someone and understand what they are saying and then youll be able to reply fluently so they can understand fully what you are saying. Youll be able to learn from other people, how they use communication and try the different ways you find yourself. Knowing the outcomes allows you to prepare yourself in situations. If you know what different tones of voice mean, they you can judge what mood someone is in, o you can then prepare yourself, as to how to communicate with that person. You will also be able to gain feedback, knowing the outcomes, because you will be able to ask people and get them to understand your work and then get information back on what they think of it. It will build relationships, especially in the workplace and you will be able to understand and communicate without any complications. 1. 4 Describe methods of communication and when to use them There are three main methods of communication: Oral, Written and Body Language, all of these are successful and well used Ways of communicating. We use all of these on a regular day to day basis. Oral Communication is otherwise known as verbal and this is the most used form of communication. Many people in a business environment use verbal communication to present information in things such as boardroom meetings. It is also used to phone clients or customers, so we orally communication with many people. People who are listening to someone speak can communicate back and if they dont understand anything they are being told, they can orally communicate back and ask them what they said again or explain it in more detail. So oral immunization requires both speaking and listening skills especially in a business environment to ensure everything works along with everything else. Written communication is also used a lot within a Business environment as many emails, documents and letters are made to colleagues, customers etc. Written communication normally holds a lot more information in which people can look at or read to themselves and study in more detail. It is used to produce documents that can be stored for later use or send memos to colleagues or the min tutees of a meeting that then gets sent off to the colleagues. All written communication normally gets sent to someone, is given to someone to read, proof for certain things or is archived for later use. Body Language is often used as an expression as it sometimes helps people to communicate, people often show body language if they are doing a presentation or they are in a meeting. Your body language, facial expressions say a lot to whom you are communicating with and so getting them right when speaking to certain people is crucial when dealing with customers especially. Also you should maintain eye contact when talking to someone as it shows you are eager and confident. Sign language is linked in to this as well because deaf people use this to communicate with people who are deaf or people who arent, it can be learnt quite easily. A lot of businesses that have employed deaf people have had most of their employees taught how to use sign language or at least how to fully communicate with a deaf person. This is so no one feels left out or outnumbered. Understand how to communicate in writing 2. 1 Identify relevant sources of information that may be used when preparing written communication There are many different sources you can use when preparing for written immunization such as: Books, magazines, leaflets, the internet, dictionaries, thesaurus, newspapers, articles, discussions etc. All of these can help for any research or planning you need in preparation for your written communication. 2. Explain the communication principles for using electronic forms Of written communication in a business environment The decision of turning to electronic communication in a work environment is an effective and efficient way of using written communication. The reasons for doing this are because it reduces the amount of paper waste in the office, s more things will be sent via email and not printed off, or letters getting sent. Also its a much faster way of communicating as you can just send an email in seconds where as if you send a letter, it could take days to get to the destination. You can also send one email to as many people as you like quickly instead of sending out loads of individual letters out. However there are rules when it comes to work emails, there is no personal use; all content should be appropriate and relate to work subjects. 2. 3 Explain different styles and tones of language and situations when they ay be used for written communication There are many different styles of writing and they can be used in many different situations. A few examples are: If you are writing a letter to argue, you obviously have a problem with something and something has upset or annoyed you. You dont want to sound too aggressive, so you need to make it sound assertive but not too harsh and make them hear a firm tone of voice when they are reading it. It would need to be in a well presented, accurate and formal style in order for the recipient, to believe you are being professional. If its a letter of apology o are writing you need to sound sympathetic and sorry for whatever reason and so you need them to believe your tone of voice is soft and caring for them. The style you would use for this kind Of letter is formal but simple, it needs to be easy to understand but formal so they can see you are being professional about the matter. If you were sending an memo email to a colleague, you would just make it sound normal, tone of voice you would usually use in conversation. Unless it is urgent then you want it too sound more firm. The style would just be informal and short because its just a reminder to another work mate. 4 Explain the reasons for selecting and using language that suits the purpose of written communication The reasons we have to select different uses of languages in written communication depend on the audience. We have to use language that they can understand easily and are able to reply to with ease. For example, if we were writing a letter to a client/customer then we would use simple but formal language. We would be formal because we need to show that we are professional with our customers, also we have to make it simple to meet the needs of the majority of customers in case they have difficulty reading etc. So thats why we have to select and use certain languages. However when sending a short memo email to a work colleague you can make it informal and short as long as they understand it. So you can see there are differences in who you communication with. 2. 5 Describe ways of organizing, structuring and presenting written information so it meets the needs of different audiences Written communication can be organized by reviewing the needs of your audience and then planning what needs to be done. If you were writing for a customer with eye sight difficulty then you would have to organism the written ext to how they could read and understand it. So you would have to plan that the writing would have to be bigger than the average font size. If you were writing for a highly professional person, you would also have to review the needs of them, you would have to use a wide range of vocabulary and be SUre you know what you are talking about. Then you have to think about the structure of the written information. If you were sending letters then you would have to ensure that it is in Paragraphs, contains the correct use of spelling, punctuation and grammar, and that the audience can understand it. This includes the size if the text. You would present the letters in a professional way and it should be on letter headed paper to show that you are a company who likes to show their professionalism. You would also have to post these items and preferably in first class to ensure the intended receiver gets this written information ASAP. 2. 6 Describe ways of checking written information for accuracy of content There are a few ways of checking for accuracy in written communication such as; proofreading get someone else to read your work, as someone else might be able to spot mistakes that you havent been able to pick up on, its always a good idea to get a second opinion, then you can improve from the feedback they give you. Drafting This way, you start with a draft, which is a rough copy of the final thing, you can change what you want and make it how it needs to be and then once it is of high enough standard and accuracy, you then make a final copy which is the one you would use. Spell Check This is a feature you can use if you are doing written communication on the computer. There is an option you can use which will check your written piece of information for spelling, punctuation and grammar. This will then ask you if o would like it to correct these things. If you do, it then is accurate. They are just a few ways in which your work can be checked for accuracy. 2. 7 Explain the purpose of accurate use of grammar, punctuation and spelling in written communication The purpose of using spelling, punctuation and grammar accurately is so you and others can read the written communication without problem. All written information should flow and be understood by most people. Without the accurate use of these writing techniques, no one would be able to read the written communication you have provided, as it wouldnt flow and it loudest really make any sense, without things such as full stops and capital letters. So using these things will make people want to read it also because they can easily understand it. 2. 8 Explain what is meant by Plain English, and why it is used Plain English is a simple and direct piece of text or verbal communication; it can be used in either way of communicating. It is a straightforward piece of text that uses words that get straight to the point and makes sense so that someone can understand what it is about. People use Plain English when communicating because everyone/or most people can understand it, whether t be written down or spoken. When people see Plain English they can easily read it as it is words that are common, put together to make a short paragraph that explains something. It also wont take long for the person to read/listen to it and understand what it is trying to say as it is very clear. So it is used to make good points in meetings and demonstrations as people will be more interested and taken in by smoothing they can clearly understand. 2. 9 Explain the purpose of proofreading and checking work The purpose of proof reading any work you do is because you need to ensure he reader will know what you are trying to say and be able to read it without problem. So you need to proof read your work to look for any mistake you may have made, it could cause more problems if you dont spot the mistakes as others could read something completely different to what you mean. Also make sure you havent left out any important information as this is the main part of your work and need to be done with accuracy. You need to make sure it flows because if it doesnt, it wont make sense and will be hard to read. Also if you arent sure about your work, get someone else to check it and then advance on what they say, if anything. Its easier to proof read because if you gave your work in to someone without doing so, they could hand it back and youd have to re-do the whole thing. 2. 10 Explain the purpose of recognizing work that is important and work that is urgent When given work to do by different people within the workplace you need to know how to priorities so you can do things in the order they need to be done in. So for example if your supervisor asks you to print out the agenda for a meeting that is in 10 minutes and a work colleague has asked you to rite up a complaint letter, you would have to decide which need to be done first. Old personally sort them in urgency before importance so I would do the print out for the meeting first. We know this is urgent because the meeting the supervisor needs it for is in 10 minutes. Therefore I would to the letter after; even thought it is important, it is not as urgent as havent been given a timescale for doing it. So because its important it would take a little bit longer than writing a normal letter because the style, punctuality, spelling and grammar all has to be perfect as something important is being said within the otter. 2. 11 Describe organizational procedures for saving and filing written In my workplace the procedures for saving a filing any piece of written communication, such as PODs, Manifests, Emails, Letters etc. Are as follows: PODs, Manifests and any other Proof of Delivery is filed in filing cabinets in the office and when we run out of room we store the oldest ones in the Archive room in the warehouse in case we need to retrieve them in the future. Emails are archived in the mailing system so all emails we send and receive are kept in case they need to be traced back or needed to prove any mints between sites. Letters are stored with Anita as she receives all post that comes to this site and she sorts them. If we save any documents on the computer, we have to name them appropriately and make sure they are saved in the Drive, which everyone has access too. 3 Understand how to communicate verbally 3. Describe ways of verbally presenting information and ideas clearly When verbally presenting information in front of work colleagues or those above you, you need to ensure everything you want to say, is said in a way they can understand. You need to make sure you use the right sort Of engage, for example it would be formal if it was in your workplace and treat them no different than you would any other time. You need to be confident and believe in yourself as if you are shaky and cant get your words out they wont be able to understand clearly what you are trying to put across. Also you should be presentable and maintain eye contact to show you known what you are talking about and get the point straight across to those who are listening. Speak loud and clear and ensure you can be heard, they wont be able to here you if you mumble. 3. 2 Explain ways of making contributions to discussions that help to achieve objectives You can achieve objectives all the time by making contributions to discussions, because you can advance on others opinions and work tasks can be done in a more efficient way and also it can be done as a team. Expressing your opinion as well as listening to others gives you a chance to improve your work and also it makes yourself heard if you speak up with your thoughts. One way of doing so is producing a presentation/discussion that puts across all of your ideas along with your colleagues, so you can work towards hitting any objectives that may or may not have been Set. It improves confidence, skills and the work itself if everyone has an input when achieving objectives in the workplace. 3. Describe ways of adapting verbal contributions to suit different audiences, purposes and situations There are many ways to adapt ways of verbally communicating for different audiences, purposes and situations; you just have to assess the situations you are in. If you were in the situation of being in a meeting/discussion in the workplace, you would change how you normally verbally communicate as you will be expressing your opinion and trying to get yourself heard, so you are outing the purpose of the meeting. You would also have calm but firm voice and use formal language as your audience would be your employer/ colleagues. If you were in a customer meeting you would have to make sure you get your point across and that you use appropriate things to talk about and also ensure that the person can understand you, speak clearly and care for their feelings, use a softer tone of voice. If you were taking a phone call, its important to change the tone of your voice to suit the audience of the phone call, as if you dont sound enthusiastic and ready to speak then they Old get annoyed or agitated. You need to speak clearly in case the line is down and ensure the audience can understand what you are saying. If you were talking to someone who is deaf it might be a good idea to adapt to sign language so you can easily communicate. 3. 4 Describe how to use and interpret body language Body language is used all the time without you knowing it, so its not something you just use once in a while. You would use it to express your feelings or thoughts on something or someone, for example if you are in a group meeting you would look enthusiastic and some you would be smiling, ye contact, sitting up straight etc. This shows you are interesting in what the person is saying. However if you dont pay attention to your body language you could give off a bad image. If you were sitting in the meeting not interested, you would more than likely be sitting there with a frown, biting your nails, slouching, arms crossed etc. So you can see a big difference in how you express yourself. You can also interpret body language if you learn how to read it, you can know what another person is thinking just by looking at their body language and so you can communicate in a silent way in the aerospace. 3. Describe how to use and interpret tone of voice In the workplace me and every other member of staff have to control and monitor when we are using our tone of voice in certain situations. You can come across as being assertive or to quiet if you dont use the correct tone of voice for the correct situation in what you are in. For example if you were having a friendly chat with someone about work you would use your normal soft tone of voice, whereas if we were in a group meeting expressing opinions the tone of voice will be a bit more stern as you need to get your views across o all. However if you are giving or receiving a disciplinary the tone of voice would be more harsh as you have obviously made a mistake and you need to know that it needs to be altered and you need to acknowledge it. Also when speaking to or communicating with people in the workplace you need to carefully interpret the tone of voice of others, as you could get the wrong idea and make the situation uncomfortable and maybe cause conflict within the 3. Describe methods of active listening When taking part in active listening, as the listener you need to make it clear o the speaker that you fully understand and hear what they are saying. There are five steps to do so: Pay attention Keep eye contact with the speaker to show that you are caring for their thoughts and try not to let anything distract you. Listen and watch the body language of the other person as that expresses a lot when someone speaks. Also dont interrupt and start other conversations as this can be off putting for the speaker and will ruin the relationship between the two of you. Show that you are listening at all times use your body language to show this by occasionally nodding your dead, smiling and using other facial expressions because they too will be watching your body language to ensure that you are actively listening to them. You should also encourage them to talk about everything they want to talk about by using small verbal comments to show that you are still listening but you want to hear more. Provide Feedback When you are listening to what the speaker has to say, you cant judge them or jump to any assumptions about them, you are purely there to listen and to show you understand. So to show this you must give short feedback, paraphrasing is he best way to do so, as it is you reflecting back to them what they have just been talking about in a short sentence every now and again. Dont interrupt Let the speaker speak and only speak when they have a break or have finished what they are saying as it may cause the speaker to think you are being rude and dont understand, or want to hear what they are talking about. Respond appropriately Be honest with the speaker and explain to them why you feel the way you do and show them that everyone has different opinions and treat them as you would anybody else, with respect. 7 Describe the benefits of active listening The benefits of active listening, is that the speaker will always know if you are fully taking in what they are saying and tattoo are respecting what they have to say. It shows you genuinely want to know and understand what you are being told. This then develops a good relationship between the two people or more if in a group. Doing this is a workplace is very beneficial as then colleagues can express themselves and talk to each other knowing that they are being heard. It will also bring the speaker and listener closer to each there and also it can give the speaker disclosure which is what they sometimes need as the listener never judges in active listening. It makes the speaker feel as if they are resolving their problems when they speak out and so having someone who is listening and responding to their thoughts is good and relieves them of any pressure they feel. . 8 Explain the purpose of summarizing verbal communication This is important in a Business Environment as it shows that you have listened to the whole conversation and now you are ready to briefly look back on that and make any comment s or show how you feel about it all. Its a ways o bring the subject of conversation to a close and make any notes or ask any questions about any points you werent sure of. It also allows you to check each persons understanding of what has been said to ensure they have understood it in the way it was meant to and also it refreshes your memory in case you forgot something you felt was important or needed to be spoken about again. 4 Understand the purpose and value of feedback in developing communication skills 4. 1 Describe ways of getting feedback on whether communications achieved their purpose There are few ways to get feedback on whether your communication has achieved its purpose of being understandable and appropriate for the audience by asking people you have communicated with recently. Communication Essay Example Communication Essay On the basis of your reading of book â€Å"Media effect† explain and elaborate the theory of agenda setting. Also highlight the agenda setting role of media with examples from Pakistani setting. Introduction: This theory puts forth the ability of the media to influence the significance of events in the publics mind. The media set the agenda for the audiences discussion and mentally order and organize their world. The theory is consistent with a use and gratification approach. McCombs and Shaw  assert that the agenda-setting function of the media causes the correlation between the media and public ordering of priorities. The people most affected by the media agenda are those who have a high need for orientation. Agenda Setting Theory: The  agenda-setting theory  is the theory that the  news media  have a large influence on audiences by their choice of what stories to consider  newsworthy  and how much  prominence and space to give them. Agenda-setting theory’s main postulate is  salience  transfer. Salience  transfer is the ability of the  news media  to transfer issues of importance from their  news media  agendas  to public  agendas. Through their day-by-day selection and display of the news, editors and news directors focus our attention and influence our perceptions of what are the most important issues of the day. This ability to influence the  salience  of topics on the public  agenda  has come to be called the  agenda  setting role of the  news media. Foundation The  media  agenda  is the set of issues addressed by  media  sources and the public  agenda  which are issues the public consider important. We will write a custom essay sample on Communication specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Communication specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Communication specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Agenda-setting theory was introduced in 1972 by  Maxwell McCombs  and  Donald Shaw  in their ground breaking study of the role of the  media  in 1968 presidential campaign in  Chapel Hill, North Carolina. The theory explains the  correlation  between the rate at which  media  cover a story and the extent that people think that this story is important. This correlation has been shown to occur repeatedly. In the dissatisfaction of the  magic bullet theory,  McCombs  and  Shaw  introduced agenda setting theory in the  Public Opinion Quarterly. The theory was derived from their study that took place in Chapel Hill, NC, where the researchers surveyed 100 undecided voters during the 1968 presidential campaign on what they thought were key issues and measured that against the actual  media  content. The ranking of issues was almost identical with a correlation of . 97, and the conclusions matched their hypothesis that the  mass media  positioned the  agenda  for public opinion by emphasizing specific topics. Subsequent research on  agenda-setting theory provided evidence for the  cause-and-effect chain of influence  being debated by critics in the field. One particular study made leaps to prove the cause-effect relationship. The study was conducted by Yale researchers,  Shanto Iyengar, Mark Peters, and  Donald Kinder. The researchers had three groups of subjects fill out questionnaires about their own concerns and then each group watched different evening news programs, each of which emphasized a different issue. After watching the news for four days, the subjects again filled out questionnaires and the issues that they rated as most important matched the issues they viewed on the evening news. The study demonstrated a cause-and-effect relationship between  media  agenda  and public  agenda. As of 2004, there were over 400 empirical studies examining the effects of  Agenda  Setting. The theory has evolved beyond the  medias  influence on the publics perceptions of issue  salience  to political candidates and corporate reputation. Functions The  agenda-setting function has multiple components: ? Media  agenda  are issues discussed in the media, such as newspapers, television, and radio. ? Public  agenda  are issues discussed among members of the public. Policy  agenda  are issues that policy makers consider important, such as legislators. ? Corporate  agenda  are issues that big corporations consider important. These four  agendas  are interrelated. The two basic assumptions that underlie most research on  agenda-setting are that the press and the  media  do not reflect reality, they filter and shape it, and the media concentra tion on a few issues and subjects leads the public to perceive those issues as more important than other issues. Levels of  agenda  setting ? The first-level  agenda  setting is most traditionally studied by researchers. Simply put, the focus is/was on major issues/objects and the transfer of the salience of those objects/issues. From these broad issues,  agenda  setting evolved to look not only at the major issues/objects, but to attributes of those issues. ? In second-level  agenda  setting, the  news media  focuses on the  characteristics  of the objects or issues. This transfer of attribute  salience  is considered second-level effects or attribute agenda-setting. The second dimension refers to the transmission of attribute  salience  to the minds of the public. More specifically, each object has numerous attributes, or characteristics and properties that fill out the picture of that particular object. As certain perspectives and frames are employed in news coverage, they can draw public attention to certain attributes and away from others. In this level the media suggest how the people should think about the issue. There are two types of attributes:  cognitive  (sustentative, or topics) and  affective  (evaluative, or positive, negative, neutral). Additionally, there are several theoretical concepts that fall under the umbrella of attribute  agenda  setting. Some of these include:   priming, gate keeping (which happens in both level) of primary importance, the concept of framing. 1. Priming: There are perspectives as to what  priming  actually is, but the primary concept is such: According to the  priming  theory,  news media  exposure presumably causes the activation of related knowledge, which is more likely to be retrieved and used in later judgments because it is more accessible in memory and comes to mind spontaneously and effortlessly. Iyengar and Kinder,  define  priming  as â€Å"changes in standards that people use to make political evaluations. 2. Gate-keeping: The concept of  gate-keeping  attempts to answer the question of who sets the  news media  agenda? Mccombs,  states that we need to look at three key elements: major sources who provide information for news stories, other news organizations, and journalisms norms and traditions. Mccombs  notes that journalists validate their sense of ne ws by observing and the work of their colleagues. Local newspapers and televisions stations note the news  agenda  offered each day by their direct competitors for local attention. Finding stories that are  newsworthy  can be difficult, but most journalists look for these characteristics throughout the information they collect. These generally are:  impact,  proximity,timeliness,  prominence,  importance,  conflict,  contradiction,  contrast,  novelty, and  human interest. 3. Framing: Although many scholars have differing opinions of what exactly  framing  is, Mccombs  defines it as, the selection of and emphasis upon particular attributes for the news media  agenda  when talking about an object (the fact of cutting and trimming news stories in order to filter it and shape it as the sender wish) . In other words, it is not just is said in news reports, but how they are characterized and presented. It is through this unique characterization/portrayal of issues/objects that communicates certain meanings to audiences apart from just stating facts and figures Usage: The theory is used in political advertising, political campaigns and debates, business news and corporate reputation,  business influence on federal policy, legal systems, trials, role of groups, audience control, public opinion, and  public relations. Strengths and weaknesses of theory It has an explanatory power because it explains why most people prioritize the same issues as important. It also has predictive power because it predicts that if people are exposed to the same  media, they will feel the same issues are important. Its meta-theoretical assumptions are balanced on the scientific side and it lays groundwork for further research. There are also limitations, such as  news media  users may not be as ideal as the theory assumes. People may not be well-informed, deeply engaged in public affairs, thoughtful and skeptical. Instead, they may pay only casual and intermittent attention to public affairs and remain ignorant of the details. For people who have made up their minds, the effect is weakened. Another limitation is that there is limited research in the realm of non-traditional forms of  news media  (i. e. Social Media, Blogs, etc ) and it’s  Agenda  Setting Role. Q-2Describe in detail the major features and concepts of the Cultivation effects hypothesis? Compare research of this tradition with traditional television effects research. Cultivation theory: Cultivation theory in its most basic form, then, suggests that exposure to television, over time, subtly cultivates viewers perceptions of reality. This cultivation can have an impact even on light viewers of TV, because the impact on heavy viewers has an impact on our entire culture. Gerbner and Gross (1976) say television is a medium of the socialization of most people into standardized roles and behaviors. Cultivation Effects Hypothesis: Stated most simply, the central hypothesis explored in cultivation research is that those who spend more time watching television are more likely to perceive the real world in ways that reflect the most common and recurrent messages of the television world, compared with people who watch less television, but are otherwise comparable in terms of important demographic characteristics (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, Signorielli, Shanahan, 2002). Gerbner  et al. 1986) go on to argue the impact of television on its viewers is not unidirectional, that the use of the term cultivation for televisions contribution to conception of social reality (Does not) necessarily imply a one-way, monolithic process. The effects of a pervasive medium upon the composition and structure of the symbolic environment is subtle, complex, and intermingled with other influences. This perspective, therefore, assumes an interaction between the medium and its publics. Cultivation Theory ( George Gerbner, 1960’s) is a top down, linear, closed communication model. It regards audiences as passive, presenting ideas to society as a mass with meaning open to little or no interpretation. The ideas presented to a passive audience are often accepted, therefore influencing large groups into conforming behind ideas, meaning that the media exerts a significant influence over audiences. This audience is seen as very vulnerable and easily manipulated. Cultivation Theory looks at media as having a long term passive effect on audiences, which starts off small at first but has a compound effect, an example of this is body image and the bombardment of images. An advantage of this theory is that it is easy to apply to a wide range of texts and to a wide range of audience members, a disadvantage however is that it doesn’t look at the background, ethnicity, gender etc. of audiences. In 1968 Gerbner conducted a survey to demonstrate this theory. From his results he placed television viewers into three categories; †¢ Light viewers (less than 2 hours a day) †¢ Medium viewers (2–4 hours a day) †¢ Heavy viewers (more than 4 hours a day) He found that heavy viewers held beliefs and opinions similar to those portrayed on television rather than the real world which demonstrates the compound effect of media influence. An advantage to this study is that surveys are able to ask specific detailed questions and can be applied over different demographic groups. Disadvantages to this study is that survey questions can be interpreted incorrectly resulting in inaccurate answers and that participants of the survey may or may not be doing the survey voluntarily which could influence how they respond to the survey and the type of people being surveyed. Gerbner created the cultivation theory as one part of a three part research strategy, called Cultural Indicators. The concept of a cultural indicator was developed by Gerbner in order to be a more common idea of a social indicator. The first part of this strategy is known as the institutional process analysis. This investigates how the flow of media messages is produced and managed, how decisions are made, and how media organizations function. The second part of this strategy is known as message system analysis, which has been used since 1967 to track the most stable and recurrent images in media content. This is in terms of violence, race ethnicity, gender, and occupation. The final part of the research study is the cultivation analysis. METHODOLOGY The first stage in cultivation analysis is a careful study of TV content in order to identify predominant themes and messages. Since 1967, Gerbner and his colleagues have been meticulously analyzing sample weeks of prime time and day time TV programming. Television’s world is populated by a preponderance of males. Moreover, in portraying occupations TV over emphasizes the professions and over represents the proportion of workers engaged in law enforcement and the detection of crime. Lastly the TV world is a violent one. Step two examines what viewers absorb from heavy exposure to the world of TV. Respondents are presented with questions concerning social reality and are asked to check one of two possible answers. One of these answers (the TV answers) is more inline with the way things are portrayed on TV; the other (the real world answer) more closely resembles situations in actual life. RESEARCH FINDINGS Most findings suggest that among some people TV is cultivating distorted perceptions of the real world. Results from a national survey of adult viewers indicate that cultivation is not limited to children. In this survey heavy TV viewers evidently felt that TV violence and crime presented an accurate depiction of reality, since they also were more fearful of walking alone at night and were more likely to have bought a dog or to have put locks on windows and doors than were light TV viewers. Research has shown that content other than crime and violence might also demonstrate a cultivate effect. One study (1981) found that heavy soap opera viewers were more likely than light viewers to over estimate the number of real life married people who had affairs or who had been divorced and the number of women who had abortions. Not all researchers have accepted the cultivation hypothesis. In particular, Hughes (1980) and Hirsch (1980) reanalyzed the National Opinion Research Center (NORC) data using simultaneous rather than individual controls for demographic variables, and they were unable to replicate Gerbner’s findings. Gerbner responded by introducing resonance and mainstreaming, two new concepts to help explain inconsistencies in the results (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, Signorielli, 1986). These concepts take account of the fact that heavy TV viewing has different outcomes for different social groups. Resonance: When the media reinforce what is seen in real life, thus giving an audience member a â€Å"double dose,† the resulting increase in the cultivation effect is attributed to resonance. Mainstreaming is a leveling effect. Gerbner says mainstreaming occurs when heavy viewing leads to a convergence of outlooks across groups. The addition of mainstreaming and resonance to cultivation theory is a substantial modification of the theory. The theory no longer claims uniform, across the board effects of Television on all heavy viewers. It now claims that TV interacts with other variables in ways such that television viewing will have strong effects on some subgroups of persons and not on others. COMPARISON OF CULTIVATION EFFECTS HYPOTHESIS WITH TRADITIONAL T. V EFFECTS RESEARCH Traditional effects research is based on evaluating specific informational, educational, political, or marketing efforts in terms selective exposure and measurable differences between those exposed and others. Scholars steeped in those traditions find it difficult to accept the emphasis of cultivation analysis on total immersion rather than selective viewing and on the spread of stable similarities of outlook rather than on the remaining sources of cultural differentiation and change. Cultivation theory is based on the results of research findings a persistent and persuasive pull of the television. Mainstream on a great variety of conceptual currents and counter currents. The focus on broad communalities of perspectives among heavy viewers of otherwise varied backgrounds requires a theoretical and methodological approach different from traditional media effects research and appropriate to the distinct dynamics of TV. Cultivation analysis is not a substitute for but a complement to traditional approaches to media effects. Traditional research is concerned with change rather than stability and with processes more applicable to media that inter a person’s life at latter stages (with mobility, literacy, etc. ) and more selectively. Neither the â€Å"before and after exposure† model, nor the notion of â€Å"predispositions† as intervening variables. So important and traditional effects studies, apply in the context of cultivation analysis. TV enters life in infancy; there is no â€Å"before exposure† condition. TV plays a role in the formation of those very â€Å"predispositions† that later intervene (and often resist) other influences and attempts at persuasion. Cultivation analysis concentrates on the enduring and common consequences of growing up and living with TV. Those are the stable, resistant, and widely shared assumptions, images, and conceptions expressing the institutional haracteristics and interests of the medium itself. Q-3Explain the concepts of Framing and Priming with examples? Also briefly describe Mainstreaming effects. Priming and Framing: Priming (mass media research), often cited next to Framing and  Agenda-setting theory, is a cognitive process, in which media information (Primes) increases temporarily the accessibility of knowledge units in the memory of an individual, which makes it more likely that these knowledge units are used in the reception, interpretation and judgment for the following external information. Framing Although many scholars have differing opinions of what exactly  framing  is, Mccombs  defines it as, the selection of and emphasis upon particular attributes for the news media  agenda  when talking about an object (the fact of cutting and trimming news stories in order to filter it and shape it as the sender wish) . In turn, as we know from attribute  agenda  setting, people who frame objects, placing various degrees of emphasis on the attributes of persons, public issues or other objects when they think or talk about them. In other words, it is not just is said in news reports, but how they are characterized and presented. It is through this unique characterization/portrayal of issues/objects that communicates certain meanings to audiences apart from just stating facts and figures; the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Entman, 1993 not only defines  frames  as â€Å"involving selection and salience. To  frame  is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more  salient  in a communicating text, in such a way as to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation for the item described.    But also goes on to describe these four functions: 1) Defining problems-determining what a causal agent is doing with what costs and benefits, usually measured in terms of common cultural values; 2) Diagnosing causes-identifying the forces creating the problem; 3) Making moral judgments-evaluate causal  agents  and their effects; and 4) Suggesting remedies-offering and justifying treatments for the problems a nd predict their likely effects. It is through these four functions that the  news media  can highlight/characterize certain issues/candidates/problems/attributes and/or choose to ignore others. Furthermore, many other defined  news media  framing as the central organizing idea for news content that supplies a context and suggests what the issue is through the use of selection, emphasis, exclusion and elaboration.   When the news media  supply the context, select what to emphasize or exclude information, they show us how to think about an object/issue/candidate. In order for this to be effective the audience must be able to internalize the information and â€Å"individual’s therefore apply interpretive schemas or â€Å"primary frameworks† Priming: There are perspectives as to what  priming  actually is, but the primary concept is such: According to the  priming  theory,  news media  exposure presumably causes the activation of related knowledge, which is more likely to be retrieved and used in later judgments because it is more accessible in memory and comes to mind spontaneously and effortlessly. , its the actual act of link two different elements in order to generate a general known idea. The concept of  priming  is supported by the  accessibility bias argument  as well as the principle of resonance as some attributes may resonate longer with individuals than others. Iyengar and Kinder,  define  priming  as â€Å"changes in standards that people use to make political evaluations. † The premis e of political priming is that public evaluations of political leaders are made on the basis of issues that are on the top of citizens’ mind. This study investigated the impact of a national referendum campaign about a European integration issue on the evaluation of the incumbent government, the Prime Minister as well opposition leaders. Drawing on a content analysis of news media and a two-wave panel survey, the results showed that as the topic of the referendum (the introduction of the euro) became more visible in the media during the campaign, the importance of the euro issue for formulating general evaluations of political leaders increased. The incumbent government that was seen to handle the referendum poorly was penalized by the referendum. Exposure to news media outlets that covered the referendum extensively and offered negative evaluations of political leaders boosted the decline in overall performance rating of political leaders for politically less involved respondents. These results stress the necessity of considering the campaign and the specific content of the media to understand fluctuations in public opinion during a referendum campaign. MAINSTREAMING EFFECTS: Gerbner and his colleagues define mainstreaming as the sharing of that commonality among heavy viewers in those demographic groups whose light viewers hold divergent views (Gerbner et al. , 1980, p. 15). Gerbner and his associates look for mainstreaming effects by selecting groups of light viewers that differ strongly in their answers to a particular question (such as the estimate of the proportion of law enforcement officers in the total workforce). They then look at the heavy viewers in those same groups. If the variation in the answers of the heavy viewers is significantly smaller than the variation in the answers of the light viewers, the researchers speak of a mainstreaming effect of television, or a relative homogenization, an absorption of divergent views, and a convergence of disparate viewers (Morgan Signorielli, 1990, p. 3). Related to acts of violence depicted in programming, viewers are de-sensitized to the violence and become less empathetic to the suffering of others. Likewise studies of other social issues indicate that television cultivates assumptions we label stereotypes. Thus notions of gender roles are reinforced by television content when viewers see women in th e kitchen and men in the workplace. An interesting result of mainstreaming is that heavy viewers tend to label themselves as â€Å"moderate† instead of â€Å"liberal† or â€Å"conservative,† despite the actual positions they take on a number of political issues. Mainstream does not mean ‘middle of the road’† (Gerbner et al. , 2002, p. 57). Mainstreaming has influenced the heavy viewer to consider himself as conforming to the dominant viewpoint rather than be counted among those who are outside of the norm. Q-4: What do you understand by social Cognitive theory of mass communication? Give examples from your own society. Mass communication is something were all affected by in one way, or another. Directly, or indirectly, information transmitted by todays communication mediums shape and directs a societys expectations and behaviors. The impacts of mass communication exert a cognitive effect on us as individuals, and as a social group. The cognitive theory examines how repeated exposure to the media changes human behavior. Values: †¢ Valuesboth personal and societalare the focus within the cognitive theory of mass communication. The methods used to relay information are based on how values are formed, structured and directed within our minds. Research within psychology, marketing and communications all combine to give us an understanding of how media interacts with a societys value system. Based on structured methods that work on values, attitudes, emotions and behavior, the effects of mass communication can be pre-determined, and put to use. Features: †¢ A persons value system is built on pre-learned patterns of how to identify people and things in her environment, and how to interact with them. Patterns that carry an emotional overtone have the most impact on a persons value system. Cognitive theory refers to these patterns as Exemplars. These are the building blocks that make up a value system. Exemplars represent accumulated information blocks within a persons psychological make-up. Mass communication mediums like television and newspapers affect us on a daily basis. Cognitive theory views the information passed along through these sources as seeded with exemplars. Over a period of years, or decades, the medias portrayal of exemplars becomes a means by which value systems can be changed. Function: †¢   Media advertisers make use of exemplars within their advertising campaigns. Cognitive theory calls this the Priming method. Based on whats called a Landscape Model, advertisers can determine where best to promote a product within a television show, a newspaper, or a movie. Product placement within the framework of a story is based on where the product will most impact the viewers. Social cognitive theory is a subcategory of  cognitive theory  that focuses on the effects that others have on our behavior. It is a form of  learning theory, but differs from other learning theories such as  behaviorism  in several important ways. Tenets of Social Cognitive Theory: Expert opinions differ on exactly what separates social cognitive theory from the more general social learning theory. In general, however, these principles can be used to define social cognitive theory. . People learn by observing others, a process known as vicarious learning, not only through their own direct experiences. 2. Although learning can modify behavior, people do not always apply what they have learned. Individual choice is based on perceived or actual consequences of behavior. 3. People are more likely to follow the behaviors modeled by someone with whom they can identify. T he more perceived commonalities and/or emotional attachments between the observer and the model, the more likely the observer will learn from the model. 4. The degree of self-efficacy that a learner possesses directly affects his or her ability to learn. Self-efficacy is a fundamental belief in one’s ability to achieve a goal. If you believe that you can learn new behaviors, you will be much more successful in doing so. Social Cognitive Theory in Daily Life: Social cognitive theory is frequently used in  advertising. Commercials are carefully targeted toward particular demographic groups. Each element of the commercial, from the actors to the background music, is chosen to help that demographic identify with the product. Notice how different the commercials shown during Saturday morning cartoons are from those shown during the evening news or a late-night movie. And who hasnt at one time or another realized the power of  peer pressure? We all want to belong, and so we tend to change our behaviors to fit in with whatever group we most strongly identify with. Although we often think of peer pressure as solely a teen phenomenon, how many of us drive a particular car, live in a specific neighborhood, or have our hair done at a certain salon simply because it is expected of someone in our social class or peer group? Social cognitive theory  is a  learning theory  based on the ideas that people learn by watching what others do and that human thought processes are central to understanding personality. While social cognitists agree that there is a fair amount of influence on development generated by learned behavior displayed in the environment in which one grows up, they believe that the individual person (and therefore cognition) is just as important in determining moral development. People learn by observing others, with the environment, behavior, and cognition all as the chief factors in influencing development. These three factors are not static or independent; rather, they are all reciprocal. For example, each behavior witnessed can change a persons way of thinking (cognition). Similarly, the environment one is raised in may influence later behaviors, just as a fathers mindset (also cognition) will determine the environment in which his children are raised.